Does "some" mean "not all"?

No. In logic, Some $S$ are $P$ means at least one $S$ is a $P$, and it is still true if all $S$ are $P$. Some $S$ are $P$ does not imply Some $S$ are not $P$.

From All $M$ are $P$ and All $S$ are $M$, may I conclude Some $S$ are $P$?

Only if you know that $S$ has at least one member. In modern logic All $S$ are $P$ does not claim that any $S$ exists (All unicorns are animals is true even though there are no unicorns). The Venn diagram shows this: the premises shade regions but place no x.

How many valid categorical syllogisms are there?

Each of the three statements has one of the four types ($4 \times 4 \times 4 = 64$ combinations), and the middle term can stand in four different positions, which gives $64 \times 4 = 256$ forms. Only $15$ of them are valid in modern logic ($24$ if you assume that every group has at least one member). That is why testing with a diagram is safer than trusting how an argument sounds.

Teacher Resources

Syllogisms

Learn the four categorical statements, the parts of a syllogism, how to test validity with Venn diagrams, and how to chain if-then statements.

Advanced30 minLesson

Printable worksheet

Definition

A syllogism is a deductive argument with exactly two premises and one conclusion. A categorical syllogism talks about groups and uses exactly three terms:

the minor term $S$ : the subject of the conclusion
the major term $P$ : the predicate of the conclusion
the middle term $M$ : it appears in both premises but never in the conclusion

The premise that contains

P

is the major premise, the premise that contains

S

is the minor premise.

Every statement in a categorical syllogism has one of four forms (the letters A, E, I, O are the traditional codes, taken from the Latin words *affirmo*, I affirm, and *nego*, I deny: A and I affirm, E and O deny):

Code	Statement	What it says about the groups
A	All $S$ are $P$	no member of $S$ lies outside $P$
E	No $S$ are $P$	$S$ and $P$ have no common member
I	Some $S$ are $P$	at least one member lies in both $S$ and $P$
O	Some $S$ are not $P$	at least one member of $S$ lies outside $P$

Testing validity with a Venn diagram. Draw three overlapping circles

S

M

and

P

. They make 8 regions:

Region	Inside	Outside
1	$S$	$M$ , $P$
2	$M$	$S$ , $P$
3	$P$	$S$ , $M$
4	$S$ , $M$	$P$
5	$S$ , $P$	$M$
6	$M$ , $P$	$S$
7	$S$ , $M$ , $P$	none
8	none	$S$ , $M$ , $P$

First shade (mark as empty) every region that an All or No premise rules out. Then place an x for each Some premise, but only where the x is forced into one region. The syllogism is valid if the finished diagram already shows the conclusion, without drawing anything more.

Classic valid form:

\text{All } M \text{ are } P,\quad \text{All } S \text{ are } M \quad\Rightarrow\quad \text{All } S \text{ are } P

The same chain works for if-then statements. This is the hypothetical syllogism (chain rule):

p \to q,\quad q \to r \quad\Rightarrow\quad p \to r

Try it now

All rectangles are parallelograms. All squares are rectangles. Therefore all squares are parallelograms. What is the middle term?

Worked Examples

All birds can fly. All penguins are birds. Therefore all penguins can fly. Name the three terms and the two premises. Is the argument valid? Is the conclusion true?

Find the minor and major term in the conclusion

Conclusion: All penguins (subject) are things that can fly (predicate) → $S$ = penguins, $P$ = things that can fly

Find the middle term

The term in both premises but not in the conclusion is birds → $M$ = birds

Name the premises

All birds can fly contains $P$ ; All penguins are birds contains $S$ → Major premise: All birds can fly. Minor premise: All penguins are birds.

Write the form with letters

All $M$ are $P$ , All $S$ are $M$ , so All $S$ are $P$ → The classic valid form: the argument is valid

Check the truth of the premises

The major premise is false: penguins and ostriches are birds that cannot fly → Valid but not sound, and the conclusion is false

Answer: $S$ = penguins, $P$ = things that can fly, $M$ = birds. The argument is valid (correct form), but the major premise is false, so it is not sound and its conclusion is false.

Common Mistakes

Calling an argument valid because its conclusion is true

Why it's wrong: Validity is about the form, not about the facts. "All roses are flowers. Some flowers fade quickly. So some roses fade quickly." has a believable conclusion, but the form is invalid: the flowers that fade quickly could all be tulips.

Correct: Replace the words with $S$ , $M$ , $P$ and test the form with the Venn diagram. Only then ask whether the premises are true.

Linking two groups through a middle term that only appears as "are $M$ " (undistributed middle)

Why it's wrong: All $S$ are $M$ and All $P$ are $M$ only put $S$ and $P$ somewhere inside $M$ . They can sit in completely different parts of $M$ , like cats and dogs inside mammals.

Correct: The middle term must cover its whole group at least once: it must be the subject of an All or No statement, or the predicate of a No or Some not statement.

Drawing a conclusion from two Some premises

Why it's wrong: Some $S$ are $M$ and Some $M$ are $P$ can be about different members of $M$ . With $S = \{1, 2\}$ , $M = \{2, 3\}$ , $P = \{3, 4\}$ both premises are true, but no member of $S$ is in $P$ .

Correct: At least one premise must be universal (All or No). Two particular premises, or two negative premises, never give a conclusion.

Reversing an All statement

Why it's wrong: All squares are rectangles does not mean all rectangles are squares. In the diagram, All $S$ are $P$ only empties the part of $S$ outside $P$ ; the part of $P$ outside $S$ can still have members.

Correct: No and Some can be reversed (No $S$ are $P$ means No $P$ are $S$ ; Some $S$ are $P$ means Some $P$ are $S$ ), but All and Some not cannot.

Interactive Visual

Venn Diagram

Premises

ENo fish are mammals
AAll sharks are fish

= empty (no elements)x= at least one element

Conclusion

E∴ No sharks are mammals

Tap a region to shade it (shaded means empty).

Venn Diagram

Premises

AAll squares are parallelograms
AAll rectangles are parallelograms

= empty (no elements)x= at least one element

Conclusion

A∴ All rectangles are squares

Tap a region to shade it (shaded means empty).

Interactive Sandbox

Expression Calculator

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Practice Problems

18 problems

Problem 1 of 18

Easy

All rectangles are parallelograms. All squares are rectangles. Therefore all squares are parallelograms. What is the middle term?

Practice Problems: Syllogisms

1. All rectangles are parallelograms. All squares are rectangles. Therefore all squares are parallelograms. What is the middle term?
2. A Venn diagram has three overlapping circles S, M and P. How many regions does it have, counting the region outside all three circles?
3. Remember: A = All S are P, E = No S are P, I = Some S are P, O = Some S are not P. Which list gives the codes of these four statements in order? (1) Some rectangles are not squares. (2) All squares are rectangles. (3) Some rectangles are squares. (4) No triangle is a square.
4. All 14 members of the chess club are also in the math club. The math club has 25 members. How many math club members are not in the chess club?
5. No prime number greater than 2 is even. All numbers in the set T are prime numbers greater than 2. Which conclusion follows?
6. All multiples of 6 are multiples of 3. All multiples of 12 are multiples of 6. Therefore all multiples of 12 are multiples of 3. Name the middle term, then follow the number 60 (a multiple of 12) through the chain. What is 60 ÷ 3?
7. All poets are dreamers. Some dreamers are engineers. Therefore some poets are engineers. How do you judge this argument?
8. A class has 60 students. No member of the swim team is on the soccer team. The swim team has 16 members and the soccer team has 22. How many students are on neither team?
9. A class has 32 students. All 8 members of the chess club are in the math club, which has 15 members. No member of the math club is in the drama club, which has 10 members. How many students are in none of the three clubs?
10. All multiples of 4 are even. All multiples of 6 are even. Therefore all multiples of 6 are multiples of 4. Show that the argument is invalid with a counterexample. What is the smallest positive multiple of 6 that is not a multiple of 4?
11. All multiples of 4 are multiples of 8. 12 is a multiple of 4. Therefore 12 is a multiple of 8. Which description is correct?
12. An orchestra has 24 members. All 9 students who play the violin are in the orchestra. 4 of the violinists sing in the choir, and 7 other orchestra members also sing in the choir. How many orchestra members do not sing in the choir?
13. Test the syllogism No M are P, Some S are M, so Some S are not P with the 8 region diagram (region 4 = inside S and M only, region 6 = inside M and P only, region 7 = inside all three). What is the code of the conclusion?
14. In the three circle Venn diagram for S, M and P, you shade the premises All S are M and No M are P. How many of the 8 regions are shaded in total?
15. The statements p → q and q → r are true, and r is false. Which statement must be true?
16. Premises: If n is divisible by 20, then n is divisible by 10. If n is divisible by 10, then the last digit of n is 0. If the last digit of n is 0, then n is divisible by 5. The chain rule gives: if n is divisible by 20, then n is divisible by 5. Check it with n = 140, then show that the converse does not follow. What is the smallest positive number divisible by 5 but not by 20?
17. A sports club has 70 members and 45 of them swim. All 20 tennis players are swimmers. 12 tennis players also run, 8 swimmers who do not play tennis run, and 15 members who do not swim run. How many members neither swim nor run?
18. Show that Some S are M, Some M are P, so Some S are P is invalid. Use S = \{1, 2\}, M = \{2, 3\} and P = \{3, 4\}. How many elements do S and P have in common?

Why It Matters

Syllogisms are the smallest building blocks of every logical proof, and they hide in many everyday arguments:

Geometry proofs: every square is a rectangle and every rectangle is a parallelogram, so every square is a parallelogram. Long proofs are chains of such steps.
Search filters and databases: if every item tagged waterproof is also tagged outdoor, a search for outdoor items already contains all waterproof items.
Rules and laws: a rule (all visitors under 12 need an adult) plus a fact (Mia is a visitor under 12) gives a conclusion about Mia.
Programming: if every Square object is a Shape, then everything you can do with any Shape you can also do with a Square.
Spotting bad arguments: ads and debates often use invalid forms such as "all healthy snacks are low in fat, our cookie is low in fat, so our cookie is healthy". Knowing the forms lets you see the gap at once.

A Venn diagram turns a question about words into a question about shaded regions, so you can check an argument instead of trusting how it sounds.

Real World Applications

School Clubs and Surveys

When a school counts club members, statements like "all members of the robotics club are in the math club" tell you which regions of the Venn diagram are empty, so you can count without double counting anyone.

Example:

No drama club member is in the math club, and all robotics club members are in the math club. By the syllogism (No $M$ are $P$ , All $S$ are $M$ ), no robotics club member is in the drama club.

1Try It Yourself

A class has $50$ students. All $12$ members of the robotics club are in the math club, which has $30$ members. No member of the drama club ( $9$ students) is in the math club.

How many students are in none of the three clubs?

Step 1: Write the mathematical expression

Write the number of students in no club as one expression:

Search Filters in Online Shops

Shop categories form groups inside groups. If every waterproof item is also an outdoor item, the filter outdoor already contains every waterproof item, which is the syllogism All $S$ are $M$, All $M$ are $P$ at work.

Example:

All rain jackets in the shop are waterproof items, and all waterproof items are outdoor items, so all rain jackets appear in the outdoor filter.

2Try It Yourself

A shop has $120$ outdoor items. All $45$ waterproof items are outdoor items. $18$ of the waterproof items are on sale, and $10$ outdoor items that are not waterproof are on sale.

How many outdoor items are on sale, and how many outdoor items are neither waterproof nor on sale?

Step 1: Write the mathematical expression

Write the number of outdoor items on sale as an addition:

Email Filters and Rule Chains

Email programs follow chains of if-then rules. The hypothetical syllogism ($p \to q$, $q \to r$, so $p \to r$) tells you where a message ends up without following every rule one by one.

Example:

If an email has a link from an unknown sender, it is flagged. If an email is flagged, it goes to quarantine. So every email with a link from an unknown sender goes to quarantine.

3Try It Yourself

A school receives $200$ emails in one day. $35$ of them have a link from an unknown sender, and every such email is flagged. $15$ other emails are flagged because of a suspicious attachment. Every flagged email goes to quarantine, and only flagged emails go there.

How many emails reach the inbox?

Step 1: Write the mathematical expression

Write the number of emails that reach the inbox as one expression:

Key Takeaways

1A syllogism has two premises and one conclusion; a categorical syllogism uses three terms: minor term $S$ , major term $P$ and middle term $M$
2The four statement types are A (All $S$ are $P$ ), E (No $S$ are $P$ ), I (Some $S$ are $P$ ) and O (Some $S$ are not $P$ )
3To test validity, shade the regions that All and No premises empty, place an x for Some premises, then check whether the diagram already shows the conclusion
4All $M$ are $P$ , All $S$ are $M$ , so All $S$ are $P$ is valid; All $S$ are $M$ , All $P$ are $M$ , so All $S$ are $P$ is invalid (undistributed middle)
5Valid means the conclusion must be true if the premises are true; sound means valid with true premises
6The hypothetical syllogism (chain rule) links if-then statements: $p \to q$ and $q \to r$ give $p \to r$

Frequently Asked Questions

Yes, if at least one premise is false. "All birds can fly, all penguins are birds, so all penguins can fly" is valid but has a false conclusion. What is impossible is a valid argument with true premises and a false conclusion.

Glossary

Syllogism: A deductive argument with exactly two premises and one conclusion
Categorical statement: A statement of the form All $S$ are $P$ , No $S$ are $P$ , Some $S$ are $P$ or Some $S$ are not $P$
Middle term: The term that appears in both premises but not in the conclusion; it links the other two terms
Major and minor premise: The major premise contains the predicate $P$ of the conclusion, the minor premise contains its subject $S$
Undistributed middle: An invalid form in which the middle term never covers its whole group, for example All $S$ are $M$ , All $P$ are $M$
Hypothetical syllogism: The chain rule for if-then statements: from $p \to q$ and $q \to r$ it follows that $p \to r$

Formula Card

Classic valid form

All

M

are

P

, All

S

are

M

\Rightarrow

All

S

are

P

The middle term links the two groups like a chain

Valid form with No

M

are

P

, All

S

are

M

\Rightarrow

S

are

P

If $S$ lies inside $M$ and $M$ shares nothing with $P$, then $S$ shares nothing with $P$

Valid form with Some

All

M

are

P

, Some

S

are

M

\Rightarrow

Some

S

are

P

The x for Some is pushed into the region inside $S$, $M$ and $P$

Undistributed middle (invalid)

All

S

are

M

, All

P

are

M

\not\Rightarrow

All

S

are

P

Being in the same big group does not connect two smaller groups

Hypothetical syllogism

p \to q,\ q \to r \Rightarrow p \to r

Chains of if-then statements; with the contrapositive also $\neg r \to \neg p$

Syllogisms

Definition

Worked Examples

Common Mistakes

Interactive Visual

Venn Diagram

Venn Diagram

Interactive Sandbox

Expression Calculator

History

Practice Problems

Why It Matters

Real World Applications

School Clubs and Surveys

Search Filters in Online Shops

Email Filters and Rule Chains

Key Takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions

Glossary

Formula Card

Classic valid form

Valid form with No

Valid form with Some

Undistributed middle (invalid)

Hypothetical syllogism

More in This Topic

Introduction to Logical Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

If-Then Statements

Converse and Inverse